Labels

Who are the Malaysians?

Malaysian flag

Updated: Jun 13, 2026

If you enjoy this post, please subscribe and share! Don't forget to add the feed service to your contacts so notifications don't end up in your spam folder. 


There are some things I could have told you about the Malaysians before I arrived. Things I had to gently correct my friends back in the UK about. 

Like 'Malaysian' isn't an ethnicity - it's a nationality. There's no language called 'Malaysian' - the national language is Malay. And not all Malaysians are ethnically Malay - many are Chinese or Indian, for example. 

But my knowledge, it turned out, barely scratched the surface. This is an incredibly diverse country. A sociolinguistics professor I know at Universiti Malaya says that more than 140 languages are spoken here! Digging deeper into the national identity was like unpicking an intricate tapestry, woven over thousands of years (otherwise known as falling down a rabbit hole).

Here's what's covered in this post:


Where in the world is Malaysia?

Located in the heart of Southeast Asia, Malaysia is split into two parts:
  • West Malaysia, which is on a peninsula (hence also called peninsular Malaysia), shared with southern Thailand and the tip of Myanmar
  • East Malaysia, comprising the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo, which is shared with Brunei and Indonesia
Map of Malaysia


Bumiputera

Literally meaning 'sons of the soil', bumiputera ('bumi') loosely refers to people who lived here before the arrival of the British and the resultant mass migration of Chinese and Indian labourers.

Starting in the 1970s - following the race riots of 13 May 1969 - the government has accorded special status to bumis, through affirmative-action policies.

But what does bumi really mean? 

The term has been used since independence in 1957, but it's not in the constitution, and how it's defined and applied varies. For example, bumi is shown as a single ethnic group in the 2020 census - making up 69.4% of the population - yet it most definitely comprises different ethnicities. And exactly which groups do and don't have bumi status - and which type of status they have and what it means for them - is seriously complicated. 

The Malays are the largest group of bumis, followed by indigenous peoples. There are also two smaller communities with full bumi rights - the Sam Sams and the Sino-Natives. 

Then there are groups with partial bumi rights - the Portuguese Eurasians and the Malaysian Siamese.

There are also a number of communities that aren't considered bumi at all but have been here for centuries. They include the Mamaks and Peranakans, who have been in talks with the government about gaining bumi status. Malaysians who are ethnically Chinese and Indian don't hold bumi rights either, even if their ancestors were here long before the British. 

Did I mention it was complicated?


Malays

The largest group of bumis - and the largest single ethnic group in the country - are the Malays, who make up 57.3% of the national population, with 18.6 million people (I'm using Census 2020 numbers throughout, for consistency). Malays are indigenous to peninsular Malaysia, but aren't categorised as indigenous peoples because they're politically, economically and socially dominant. 

The Malay people could be descended from an Orang Asli group (indigenous population of West Malaysia) or could have been a separate, later group of migrants from another part of Asia. But through intermarriage, they became a diverse admixture of various ethnic groups, including local populations and Arabs, Chinese, Indians and others who arrived via the ancient shipping routes. 

Two Malay women and a Malay man conversing

Initially comprising many subgroups, the Malays began to identify as a single ethnic group during the Melaka Sultanate in the 15th century. What made Melaka different from previous Malay kingdoms was its embrace of Islam, along with a common Malay language and customs - characteristics which define a Malay person in the constitution today.


Indigenous peoples

The second-largest group of bumis is the indigenous community of Malaysia - which I didn't have a clue about, beyond the fact of their existence. But they make up around 11% of the population, or 3.6 million people. 

The indigeneous peoples arrived from different parts of Asia at different times - and the very earliest may even have been part of the first wave of migration from Africa. Most practise animist religions, but an increasing number have converted to Islam, as well as Christianity.

I was bowled over to learn that there are more than 100 indigenous groups, each with a distinct language and identity. But that's a subject for another post. I'm still getting my head around the different collective terms that are used:

  • The indigenous peoples of West Malaysia are called 'Orang Asli' or 'Aborigines' in the federal constitution. They make up less than 1% of the population on the peninsula.
  • The indigenous peoples of East Malaysia are called 'Natives' in the constitution. They make up around 60% of Sabah's population and 70% of Sarawak's population.
  • The non-Muslim native peoples of East Malaysia are called 'Dayak'. But for some reason, the term tends to be used only for the non-Muslim native peoples of Sarawak.
  • The indigenous peoples of both West and East Malaysia are called 'Orang Asal'. But it isn't a universally agreed term - The Human Rights Commission of Malaysia, for example, uses the term only for Natives of East Malaysia.

Kadazandusun people from Sabah

To make things more complicated, a Malay acquaintance told me it's best to refer to the indigenous community as bumiputera - even though this term also refers to other groups. 

Although indigenous peoples enjoy full bumi rights, that doesn't change their official ethnic status, which traditionally has been 'lain-lain' ('others') - a long-standing source of contention. I should mention here that ethnicity is a big deal in Malaysia, and must be stated on many documents and applications. If you're not Malay, Chinese or Indian, you're 'other'.

In 2015, Sabah and Sarawak removed 'lain-lain' from state forms. Natives in Sarawak could now select 'bumiputera' while those in Sabah could fill in a blank. But nationally, the indigenous population remains 'lain-lain', something the Natives of Borneo continue to contest - as well as the Aboriginals of the peninsula - as part of a wider discourse about what bumi policies mean for indigenous peoples.

Still with me? Read on...


Jawi Peranakans

I won't talk too much about the Jawi Peranakans here because - confusingly! - they're also part of a diverse group of people called 'Peranakans', which are described further below. 

But suffice to say that Jawi Peranakans are descended from Muslim emigres and local Malay women, and are deemed to be Malay, which in the federal constitution means they are practising Muslims, habitually speak Malay, and conform to Malay customs. As a result, Jawi Peranakans have full bumi rights. 

Sam Sams

The Sam Sams are a group of Malaysian-Siamese people who speak a version of Thai - an old dialect interspersed with Malay words - but are Muslim. 

They've been classed as Malay since 1921, thus enjoying full bumi status - despite the mix of Malay and southern Thai influences in language as well as customs, at least among older Sam Sams. The debate about their origin - a possibility that they might be Malays from Siam - probably plays a role.

No one knows how many Sam Sams there are today, since they're counted as Malay, tut there were only around 16,000 in 1911, so it's a small group.


Sino-Natives

Sino-Natives - also known as 'Sinos' - have mixed Chinese and Native Sabahan ancestry. They're deemed to be indigenous, and therefore have full bumi rights. 

Why only Sabahan? That's because under the constitution, only one parent or grandparent needs to be a Sabah Native (among other things), in order for someone to be considered Native. But in Sarawak, the constitution requires both parents to be Native. In September 2022, however, the law in Sarawak changed, allowing children of mixed ancestry to apply to be recognised as Native.  


Portuguese Eurasians

The Portuguese Eurasians have a history that dates to the Portuguese conquest of Melaka in 1511. They have partial bumi status, which confers only the right to buy into the government-run mutual fund. And, like indigenous peoples, their ethnic status is 'lain-lain'.

This is a tiny community, with a population of only 2,500, according to one source. But what it lacks in numbers it makes up for in its distinct culture, shaped by Portuguese, Malay, Chinese and Indian roots. 

A strong Catholic tradition is one defining feature, evident in the names that Portuguese Eurasians often call themselves - 'Kristang' (from 'Cristão', meaning 'Christian' in Portuguese) and 'Serani' (from 'Nasrani', meaning 'Christian' in Arabic). So too is the cuisine, exemplified by tangy, fiery dishes like the famous 'devil's curry'. However, the Kristang language - a Portuguese-Malay creole, with elements of Chinese dialects - is, nearly extinct, having given way to English.


Malaysian Siamese

Another group with partial bumi rights are the Malaysian Siamese. Like the Sam Sams, they have Thai heritage - but speak modern Thai and practise Buddhism. They appear to have more privileges than Portuguese Eurasians (I'm not totally sure about this), but ethnically are also classed as 'lain-lain'.

I was surprised to read that there are an estimated 70,000 Malaysian Siamese - and even more suprised to learn that Malaysia's first prime minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, was Malaysian Siamese - as I had never heard of this group before. But I guess that's because it's up near the border - created when Thailand ceded four northern states to the British in 1909.

Malaysian Siamese retain a strong Thai cultural identity - consuming Thai media and putting Buddhism at the centre of community life, for example - but at the same time, fully identify with being Malaysian nationals.


Chinese

The Chinese presence goes way back to the 13th century, when Kublai Khan invaded Java. It increased during Dutch colonial rule in the 17th and 18th centuries, and became a full-scale migration after the British arrived in the late 18th century, thanks to the booming tin mining and rubber industries.

Today, the Chinese are the second-largest ethnic group in Malaysia, making up 23.2% of the population, or 7.5 million people. 

Chinatown in Kuala Lumpur

Many of the immigrants to British Malaya hailed from the southern Chinese provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. 

They included the Hakka, a prominent group of nomadic people who were originally from northern China but settled in the southern provinces. My own grandparents, from my mum's side, were Hakka from Guangdong and Hong Kong, and met in Malaya. There's a romantic story about how Grandpa, who was working in a logging camp, fell in love with Grandma - only for her parents, who didn't fancy his prospects, to have him thrown in jail for winning her hand by nefarious means.

Like their ancestors, many Malaysian Chinese today are Buddhist and speak dialects from Fujian (Hokkien) and Guangdong (Cantonese and Hakka). When I visited Ipoh as a child, I heard a lot of Cantonese, and assumed it was widely spoken throughout Malaysia. But in KL I hear a lot of Mandarin, and it's not uncommon for people in stores or on the street to assume I speak the dialect. 

I've heard different perspectives on the subject. Some people say both Mandarin and Cantonese are widely spoken here, but one or the other will dominate depending on the neighbourhood you're in. Others say Mandarin has become the lingua franca for Chinese speakers, because of the popularity of Mandarin-language schools - which is apparently causing younger people to lose touch with their ancestral dialects. But one person told me that only 10% of Malaysian-Chinese students attend such schools, and he was scathing about the standard of Mandarin here, saying I speak it better than many locals (certainly news to me!). 

Whatever the case may be, I've been surprised by the number of Malaysian Chinese I've met who speak English at home. For some, it's their first language - they can hold a conversation in Chinese but use English to plug gaps in their vocabulary. Some barely speak Chinese at all, and can be very reluctant to use what little they know in public, for fear of ridicule, as described in this article. They're jokingly called 'bananas' - a term I thought was reserved for westerners like me! 

If there's one thing I've learned about living here, it's that nuances abound; there are very few generalisations you can make about Malaysians!


Indians

There have been Indians in Malaysia for thousands of years, with traders and settlers from ancient India arriving as early as 500 BC. Many more arrived in the 15th century, when the Melaka Sultanate became part of the Spice Routes.  

British colonisation of Malaya and India in the 19th century brought another influx of migrants. Some came for trade and business. Others were recruited for civil service, or to work in sugarcane and rubber plantations, or to build roads and railways. Many were Tamil Hindus from the southern part of India, which is why Tamil is the most widely spoken language among Malaysian Indians today.

Another wave of Tamils came to Malaya starting in the 1920s, filling clerical and government posts, and eventually professional positions in fields like medicine and law. And, since the 1970s, many Indians have arrived to work in the tech sector.

Today, ethnic Indians make up 6.7% of the population, or 2.2 million people.


Mamaks

The Mamak people, who arrived in the 19th century as traders, form a distinct subgroup of the Indian community. They mainly speak Tamil, or their original Indian mother tongue, but practise Islam. 

You'll see many Mamak-run restaurants around town - simple, open-air eateries that stay open late into the night, selling affordable Indian and Malay food. Local friends don't bother looking at the menu - they have favourite dishes they keep going back to. Well worth trying!

Mamak restaurant, Restoran Thoulath Maju, in Kuala Lumpur


Peranakans

Like many things in Malaysia, the term 'Peranakan' defies an exact or commonly agreed definition, and has been a topic of hot debate for decades.  

Online sources usually define a Peranakan as being a locally born person with local and foreign ancestry. Many Peranakans do believe they have mixed heritage - but some believe their ancestors did not intermarry with locals, and that being Peranakan is solely a cultural identity. A Malaysian friend, meanwhile, told me that a Peranakan is simply someone whose ancestors arrived here hundreds of years ago. 

However it's defined, Malaysia is dotted with a number of small - but vibrant - Peranakan communities, a legacy of its history as a migratory and trading hub. 


Peranakan Chinese

The biggest group of Peranakans are the Peranakan Chinese, which is usually what people mean when they use the term. 

There are several distinct subgroups within this community, but many members trace their lineage back to southern mainland China, particularly Fujian province - which is why their language is influenced to varying degrees by the Hokkien dialect. 

A DNA study published in 2021 revealed an average of 5.6% Malay ancestry among Peranakan Chinese in Singapore - who share the same roots as those in peninsular Malaysia. But the study also found that 10% of the population has 100% Chinese ancestry. So for this group at least, the question of genetics appears to be settled.

The Peranakan Chinese of Melaka are the most well-known subgroup. At Muzium Negara (National Museum), I learned that they're descended from Chinese people who settled in Melaka in the 15th century and married local women. The settlers adapted to Malay culture while retaining their Chinese identity and beliefs. This created a society famed for its dress, cuisine, brightly coloured ceramics and beaded embroidery, with a unique language called 'Baba Malay' - a Malay patois with some Hokkien words. The only information I could find on the size of the community was a source from 1988, which put it at 5,000 people. 

Peranakan-Chinese embroidery

Penang is home to another subgroup of Peranakan Chinese (population unknown). They have a similar heritage as the community in Melaka but a later history, dating to 1786, when Penang was established as a British colony. Their language is also different - called 'Baba Hokkien', it's mostly Hokkien with some Malay words. And their cuisine has Thai influences, in contrast to the Portuguese and Indonesian flavours used by their Melakan cousins. 

I believe my dad's side of the family was Peranakan in the Penang style, although they were from Ipoh. They apparently spoke Baba Hokkien and dressed in clothes like the nyonya kebaya. Must investigate!

The Peranakan Chinese of Melaka and Penang (as well as Singapore) are commonly known as 'Baba Nyonya', referring to males and females, respectively. They're also called 'Straits Chinese', a term that was used for the Peranakan Chinese living in British colonial settlements along the Strait of Malacca (and Singapore Strait). Back in the day, the Straits Chinese differentiated themselves from newly arrived Chinese labourers, identifying with Malaya as their homeland, coupled with loyalty to the British crown. Indeed, they saw themselves as British subjects, wearing western suits, speaking English, sending their children to England to study, and indulging in pastimes like dancing, cricket and horse riding. 

The Baby Nyonya community has been in decline for a long time, due to migration and assimilation. However, they're trying to revive their culture, and there's also been a resurgence of outside interest in their arts and crafts.

There are also Peranakan Chinese subgroups in the East Coast states of Kelantan and Terangganu, who are not typically referred to as 'Baba Nyonya' nor, of course, Straits Chinese. Those in Kelantan have Chinese, Malay and Siamese ancestry dating back 300 years, and practise traditions from all three cultures. By one estimate, they make up 3% of the state's population, numbering nearly 54,000. 

Those in Terangganu descend from Chinese immigrants who arrived in the 16th century - although a small, unrecorded number may have been here as early as the 12th century. They apparently did not intermarry with locals, although they have largely assimilated with the Malay population, except for the practice of Taoism. Their population is tiny, numbering only 1,000. 


Melaka Chettis


The Melaka Chettis have a unique cultural heritage. They speak Malay rather than Tamil - and originally spoke a language called Malay Chetty creole, a mix of Malay, Tamil and English, which is now seriously endangered. Their cuisine is a distinct blend of South Indian, Malay and Peranakan Chinese. And these influences are also found in their dress.

But there are only around 500 Melaka Chettis remaining in Malaysia today. The entire population may only number about 2,000 - including the many who migrated to Singapore in the early 1900's as Melaka fell into further decline. 


Jawi Peranakans

Like the Melaka Chettis, most Jawi Peranakans have mixed Tamil and local ancestry, and speak Malay rather than Tamil - but there the similarities end:


Eurasians

The Portuguese Eurasians (see above) are part of a wider Eurasian community in Malaysia that also includes descendants of Dutch, British and other European settlers. Collectively they form another group of Peranakans, who number around 29,000. 

This is why European surnames are not uncommon in Malaysia - something which puzzled me at first, as Eurasians don't necessarily look different than other locals, given the amount of assimilation that's occurred over the centuries. 



Rojak culture

Rojak is a salad of basically anything, tossed with a dressing typically containing some form of shrimp paste, sugar and chilli (try it!). Meaning 'mixed' in Malay, rojak is also slang for mixing different things together - and it describes Malaysia's culture perfectly.

How Malaysians speak exemplifies the rojak culture. Their ability to switch back and forth between languages and dialects, and infuse whatever language they're speaking with words from other languages and dialects, is nothing short of amazing. 

One example is 'Manglish', an English creole that uses Malay, Chinese dialects and Tamil, as well as Malay or Chinese sentence structure. It's not only hilarious, but efficient, with the goal seemingly to use as few words as possible - check out "A Beginners Guide to Manglish". If you don't understand it, don't worry - Malaysians do use 'proper English' when needed!

Sign in Manglish at Roti King, a Malaysian restaurant in London

But for all its rojak culture, I wouldn't describe Malaysia as a melting pot in the same way that Brazil, for example, is. Malaysia's ethnic groups largely coexist (often peacefully) rather than blend together. The question of ethnicity is always under the surface; I couldn't rent a place or open a bank account without specifying my ethnic group, and I can't tell you how many times I've been asked, "Are you Chinese?" 

Interestingly, I've read arguments that ethnic relations today are a byproduct of British rule - with its introduction of ethnicity based social and economic order - rather than the inevitable result of different communities living side by side. There are, of course, many other opinions on this complex topic, which I can't cover here. 

But I will say this: Malaysia's rojak culture has created some of the most fascinating, diverse people you'll ever meet, and some of the warmest and most sociable. The Malaysians I've encountered are next-level friendly. They speak their mind too; no beating around the bush. I had thought Malaysians would be conservative, with a lot of protocols around how to behave. How wrong I was. 

It's well worth taking the time to dig a bit deeper and get to know who the Malaysians really are. I hope this post goes some way towards that - but the best thing, of course, is just to get out there and meet them! 



Enjoyed this post? Never miss out on future posts by subscribing and sharing! Please add the feed service to your contacts so notifications don't end up in your spam folder.






Email Post
Labels:

Comments

Post a Comment